This socialization also involves learning the rules and norms of the society as a whole. In the early days of compulsory education, students learned the dominant culture. Today, since the culture of the United States is increasingly diverse, students may learn a variety of cultural norms, not only that of the dominant culture. School systems in the United States also transmit the core values of the nation through manifest functions like social control. One of the roles of schools is to teach students conformity to law and respect for authority. Obviously, such respect, given to teachers and administrators, will help a student navigate the school environment. This function also prepares students to enter the workplace and the world at large, where they will continue to be subject to people who have authority over them. Fulfillment of this function rests primarily with classroom teachers and instructors who are with students all day. Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility. This function is referred to as social placement. College and graduate schools are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the financial freedom and security they seek. As a result, college students are often more motivated to study areas that they believe will be advantageous on the social ladder. A student might value business courses over a class in Victorian poetry because she sees business class as a stronger vehicle for financial success. Education also fulfills latent functions. As you well know, much goes on in a school that has little to do with formal education. For example, you might notice an attractive fellow student when he gives a particularly interesting answer in class—catching up with him and making a date speaks to the latent function of courtship fulfilled by exposure to a peer group in the educational setting. The educational setting introduces students to social networks that might last for years and can help people find jobs after their schooling is complete. Of course, with social media such as Facebook and LinkedIn, these networks are easier than ever to maintain. Another latent function is the ability to work with others in small groups, a skill that is transferable to a workplace and that might not be learned in a homeschool setting. The educational system, especially as experienced on university campuses, has traditionally provided a place for students to learn about various social issues. There is ample opportunity for social and political advocacy, as well as the ability to develop tolerance to the many views represented on campus. In 2011, the Occupy Wall Street movement swept across college campuses all over the United States, leading to demonstrations in which diverse groups of students were unified with the purpose of changing the political climate of the country.
Functionalists recognize other ways that schools educate and enculturate students. One of the most important U.S. values students in the United States learn is that of individualism—the valuing of the individual over the value of groups or society as a whole. In countries such as Japan and China, where the good of the group is valued over the rights of the individual, students do not learn as they do in the United States that the highest rewards go to the “best” individual in academics as well as athletics. One of the roles of schools in the United States is fostering self-esteem; conversely, schools in Japan focus on fostering social esteem—the honoring of the group over the individual. In the United States, schools also fill the role of preparing students for competition in life. Obviously, athletics foster a competitive nature, but even in the classroom students compete against one another academically. Schools also fill the role of teaching patriotism. Students recite the Pledge of Allegiance each morning and take history classes where they learn about national heroes and the nation’s past. Another role of schools, according to functionalist theory, is that of sorting, or classifying students based on academic merit or potential. The most capable students are identified early in schools through testing and classroom achievements. Such students are placed in accelerated programs in anticipation of successful college attendance. Functionalists also contend that school, particularly in recent years, is taking over some of the functions that were traditionally undertaken by family. Society relies on schools to teach about human sexuality as well as basic skills such as budgeting and job applications—topics that at one time were addressed by the family.
Functionalism in sociology sees the parts of society as components of a cohesive whole. Each part performs a useful function. For example, the parents in a family provides for the children, who will in turn care for the parents when they become elderly. Similarly, the person who builds the road will build roads that the farmer drives on to get his produce to market, which the road builder will then buy to eat. We all have a role to play in the proper functioning of society. All the institutions, structures, and people that make up a society perform important roles. They are interdependent on each other. Functionalists think of parts of society as organs of a body (Herbert Spencer). Each part of society performs a function that makes it work as a whole, just as a human body needs all the organs to perform their parts to make the body work (Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons). Functionalism is also sometimes called structural-functionalism because it views society as made up of social structures. All the individual components of these structures perform indispensable functions. Origins of FunctionalismHerbert Spencer (1820-1903), one of the early proponents of functionalism was a biologist by training. So, some of the earliest formulations of functionalism were expressed in the language of natural biology. Even before Spencer, Auguste Comte (1798-1857), regarded as the founder of sociology, wanted the sociological discipline to be based on natural sciences such as biology, physics, and chemistry. Hence it was natural that early functionalism came to be modeled on the natural sciences. Emile Durkehim’s (1858-1917) doctoral dissertation, The Division of Labour in Society published in 1893, was considered a seminal text of structural functionalism. Durkheim attempted to reorient functionalist thought towards a more capitalist-industrialist way of thinking. This was in keeping with the rapid transition of traditional societies to industrial capitalist societies during his time. Functionalism was the predominant theoretical framework for sociological thinking till the 1960s, after which it began to retreat following critiques from various intellectual quarters such as feminism, postmodernism, postcolonialism, etc. Applications of functionalism today tend to be a lot more nuanced and take into account the critiques offered by the various schools of thought. Examples of Functionalism in FamiliesThe functionalist perspective in sociology views the family as the basic building block of society. It performs several functions that are critical to the smooth functioning of society. Below are a few examples: 1. Murdock’s 4 Functions of the FamilyGeorge Peter Murdock (1949) was among the first to articulate clearly the functionalist perspective on the family. Murdock proposed that a family serves 4 essential functions:
2. Parsons’ Nuclear FamilyTalcott Parsons (1951) took the argument on the functionalist perspective of the family one step further. He argued that not only does the family perform all the functions mentioned by Murdock, the family is also a highly adaptive unit capable of modifying itself according to the demands of the society. The family thus mimicks the functioning of an organism that adapts itself to change to continue being functional. As an example, Parsons gave the case of the emergence of the nuclear family in response to industrialization that served all the critical familial functions demanded of it. Parsons argued that the pre-industrial extended family could not adapt to the new demands of mobility imposed upon the working populations. As workers, and consequently, families needed to be constantly on the move, the structure of the family adapted itself to the new function required of it. 3. Care of the ElderlyIn some countries, such as the United States, there exist state funded facilities to care for the elderly. However, in most parts of the world, elderly care is the responsibility of the family. In this, the family performs a critical function of taking care of the aged and the infirm. Examples of Functionalism in SchoolsA school is a microcosm of society. The functionalist perspective applied to schools examines the function performed by the school in contributing to society. Below are a few examples of how functionalism is applied to education: 1. Imparting SkillsOne of the primary functions of schools is to impart skills to students and make them employable or capable of generating employment. To this effect, schools teach skills such as language, numeracy, and vocational and technical skills. The school is thus an institution that helps a society function by producing individuals capable of sustaining the system of economic relations that is crucial to the survival of any society. 2. Socialization & Respect for LawDurkheim viewed schools as “socialization agencies” where children learn how to be a part of society by interacting with others (Durkheim, 1956). A child learns skills such as cooperation, coexistence, and conflict management within the school environment. In ethnically, racially, culturally, and linguistically diverse societies, children learn how to accept and be welcoming of differences, helping to create a more accommodating society. Children also learn how to obey rules and the consequences of transgressing rules, that condition them into becoming law-abiding adults later on in life. 3. Inculcation of ValuesEvery society has a certain set of values and its education system is primed to inculcate those values in its students. For instance, the American sociologist Talcott Parsons believed that a school uses the hidden curriculum to instil values such as competition and individualism that are characteristic of American society, and essential to its continued progress. Parsons believed that it is in a school that children understand the meaning of a meritocracy where your achievements and your status are a function of the effort you put in; the notion of meritocracy being another cherished value in American society. Examples of Functionalism in ReligionThe functionalist perspective views religion as being essential to human society as it performs certain vital functions. Below are a few examples of the useful functions that functionalist thought believes religion provides in society: 1. Sense of Belonging to the CommunityEmile Durkheim (1912) believed that one of the most important functions of religion is fostering a sense of belonging of the individual to a wider community. Durkheim based his views on a study of Australian Aboriginal tribes but we can experience this function of religion even today. For many people, their strongest sense of identity is often with their religion, rather than with other institutions such as the nation or linguistic community. For instance, religious nationalism is a vital force in many parts of the world such as South Asia, where the sense of belonging to the wider community fostered by religion overcomes linguistic, ethnic, and racial divides. For more on Durkheim, see his work on social facts. 2. Psychological and Emotional FunctionA critical function that religion serves is fulfilling psychological and emotional needs. For many people religion can act as a form of support that helps them deal with mentally and emotionally overwhelming situations. For others religion provides a way of dealing with trauma and provides answers to the deepest questions of human existence, such the meanings of life and death, that neither science, nor art can provide. Bronislaw Malinowski (1925) showed through his anthropological work that religion acts as a coping mechanism for individuals and society when faced with the essentially unpredictable nature of life. 3. Providing Moral and Social CodesReligion can be a source of morality that in turn helps maintain order in society by influencing our idea of what is right and what is wrong. Some of the oldest legal codes in the world are to be found in religious texts, such as the Law of Moses that is found in the Torah. Many countries in the Islamic world are governed by the Islamic Shari’a law. Beyond formal legal codes, religions also shape our ideas of morality. For instance several principles that we almost unconsciously imbibe in our everyday life, and which influence the definition of ideal human morality such as “love thy neighbor” or “do unto others as you would have others do unto you” are of Biblical origin. Similarly, the practice of charity and helping the poor are institutionalized in the form of obligatory practice in many religions such as Sikhism. Talcott Parsons believed that this aspect of religion performed the critical function of maintaining social order. 4. The Family UnitFunctionalism also tends to also cohere well with Christian thought. A Christian view of the family sees it as the cornerstone of society. The mother and father form the leadership team. Within that team, traditionally the mother and father have also been seen as taking on gender roles granted to them by god. It is through this team, with each team member taking on a defined role, that the functioning nuclear family can produce future moral citizens. The parents also take on the role of providers. as with Murdock’s 4 Functions of the Family model outlined earlier, the nuclear family unit is seen as essential in Christianity so that the children may be provided for. Here, we will often see the strengths of the mother and father both employed to create a well-rounded environment for children’s growth. Within the family unit, the children also take on important social roles. They spend their formative years learning morality, respect, and discipline from the leadership team (the parents). Conclusion Functionalism views the various structures and institutions within a society as not just performing useful functions, but also being interdependent on each other. In the examples cited above, the family, the school, and religion not just perform useful functions for society by themselves, but are also interdependent. Functionalists view the school as an intermediary between the family and the society at large, thus being linked to, and dependent on both. Religion provides a sense of security and belonging much like a family, but at a higher level of organization, and it provides values and enables socialization just like a school. Almost all religions lay stress on the importance of family life, and provide mechanisms for the education of their adherents in their religious doctrines through religious schools. Thus, each structure, in interdependent, and performs a useful function in the smooth running of society. RELATED ARTICLES ON SOCIAL NORMS:
ReferencesDurkheim, E. (1912) The elementary forms of religious life. Los Angeles: Allen & Unwin. Durkheim, E. (1956) Education and sociology. London: Free Press. (originally published in 1922) Malinowski, B. (1992) Science, religion, and magic. London: Waveland. (originally published in 1925) Murdock, G.P. (1949) Social structure. New York: The Macmillan Company.. Parsons, T. (1951) The social system. London: Routledge. |
School practices based on functionalist theory
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